SALIENT FEATURES OF ADMINISTRATION UNDER PIOUS CALIPHATE 

Outline:

1. Introduction
2. Caliph
3. Shura
4. Central Government and its Departments
5. Secretaries
6. Provincial Administration and Districts
7. Judicial Administration
8. Police and Prison Department
9. Financial Administration
10. Establishment of Bait Ul Mal
11. Conclusion

Introduction:

The Rashidun Caliphate (al-Khilafa-al-Rashidah) was the caliphate established after the demise of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) It was ruled by the four successive caliphs of the Prophet (PBUH). These caliphs are collectively known as “Rightly Guided” caliphs (al- Khulafa ur-Rashidün).

The caliphate arose out of the demise of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in 632 CE when Abu Bakr al-Siddique (573-634), a close companion of Prophet (PBUH) from the Banu Taym clan was elected as the first Rashidun leader and began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. He ruled from 632 till his death in 634. Abu Bakr was succeeded by Umar al- Farouq (583-644), his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan, who began the conquest of Persia and Egypt leading to the defeat of the Sassanid Empire. Caliph Umar was assassinated in 644 and was succeeded by Uthman al-Ghani (579-656)of Banu Umayya who was elected by a six-persons committee constituted by Caliph Umar. Under Caliph Uthman began the conquest of Armenia, Fars and Khorasan. Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656 and succeeded by Syedna Ali (600-661) of Banu Hashim, who presided over the civil war known as the First Fitna (656-661). The war was primarily between those who supported Uthman’s cousin and governor of the Levant Muawiyah, and those who supported the caliph Ali. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after the Prophet (PBUH). The war was decided in favour of the faction of Muawiyah (602-680) who established the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 thus ending the Rashidun Caliphate

Caliph Umar (R.A) succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (RA) and built up a great Islamic administrative system. He introduced administrative reforms and incorporated concepts which are salient of modern day administrative/ /welfare theory and practice. He developed and modernized the whole realm of Islam. H

Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader’s death and elect a leader from amongst themselves although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.

This argument is advanced by Sunni Muslims that Prophet’s companion Abu Bakr al- Siddique was elected by the community, and this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus. The caliphate became a hereditary office or the prize of the strongest general after the Rashidun caliphate However, this happened after the end of Rashidun caliphate.

Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani (950-1013) has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767) also held that the leader must come from the majority.

1. Caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddique was requested by Umer bin al-Khattab and Abu Ubaidah bin al-Jarrah to assume the caliphate after the demise of the Prophet (PBUH) when a dispute arose at Saqifa Bani Saidah wherein the Ansars tried to place their own candidate as caliph. The nomination was accepted by the majority and people from all across Arabia thronged in large numbers in coming days to express allegiance at the hands of Abu Bakr al-Siddique. Therefore he enjoyed a popular legitimacy and democratic support.
2. b. Caliph Umar bin al-Khattab: the dying caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddique nominated Umar (R.A) as his successor and people agreed to his suggestion when they expressed their allegiance to Hazrat Umar.
3. Caliph Uthman bin al-Affan: When Caliph Umar (R.A) was stabbed and he was on death bed, he chosen six great companions to elect the new caliph by assessing popular opinion. The men withdrew their nomination excepting Uthman bin al-Affan and Ali bib Abi Talib. Hazrat Abul Rehman bin Awf a member of the committee. pronounced Uthman bin Affan as Caliph after assessing the public opinion thereafter the public held allegiance to Uthman bin Affan.
4. Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib: After the martyrdom of Hazrat Uthman, Ali bin Abi Talib was asked by the rebels to assume the caliphate, he declined. But he assumed the charge when the people of Medina and the great companions requested him to do SO,

Therefore, the Rashidun Caliphs enjoyed popular legitimacy and were elected through a democratic process.

1. Caliph’s Powers and Authority:

The pious Caliph was not an autocratic ruler. His powers were determined by his religious and temporal functions. Though he succeeded to the place, occupied by the Prophet (PBUH) before, he did not exercise all of his powers. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) was simultaneously the Messenger of God, the head of the State, the chief judge, the supreme commander and the lawgiver. Thus he combined in him prophetic and political, spiritual and secular powers. The Caliph as his successor, did not succeed to the whole plenum of his powers. Being the Last of the Prophets, he could not be succeeded by anyone in his prophetic and spiritual functions, but only in his political, religious and secular ones.

1. Composition of Shura:

No definite rule or law regulated the composition and membership of the Shura Usually Shura comprised the Chief Companions among the Muhajireen But sometimes the leading figures among the Ansar were also co-opted On special occasions, even ordinary citizens of Medina or the visiting dignitaries of the tribes or provinces, were also summoned to a meeting of the Shura. Thus the Shura was at once an executive council, a secretariat of the Caliphs, a consultative council and a general assembly of the citizens and visitors of Medina. In this sense, it combined executive and legislative functions of the Caliphal State.

1. Functions of Shura:

As its composition shows, the Shura was a multi-purpose organization. It advised the Caliph in the performance of his various duties, such as the dispatch of armies, choice of commanders, governors and other officials, fixing the salary of the soldiers establishment of new offices, etc. It was, however, not a sovereign legislative body Like the Caliph, it too had no power to change Islamic law or contravene the injunctions of the Quran and Sunnah. Indeed, a sovereign legislative organ of the State was foreign to the spirit of early Islam. Law was already revealed in the Quran and exemplified in the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). The function of the Shura, as also of the Caliph or of any other Muslim, was to discover or derive it by interpreting the verse of the Quran and the hadiths of the Prophet (PBUH).

Its procedure of work was simple. If the advice of the leading Companions was sought by the Caliph, he consulted them in the Mosque, where they were always present. But if public consultation was felt necessary, a man was sent through the streets of Medina calling people to the prayers. When assembled, a brief prayer was observed and then the business of the general Shura began. The Caliph put the question before the assembly and sought its advice. Every member had the right to speak. A free exchange of opinion took place. But decision was not made by counting votes or by shouting “yes or no” as in present-day legislatures. They usually accepted the opinion of the Caliph or the general consensus of opinion among its members.

1. Adhoc nature of Shura:

The Shura was really ad hoc in its nature, as indicated by the lack of definite rules regarding its composition, functions and procedure. Usually, the Shura was called on need basis. It did not hold regular sessions. That is why the Shura worked well under a Caliph like Umar, who summoned it whenever he was confronted with an important task. But it ceased to meet regularly under his successors, Usman (RA) and Ali dega). Usman (RA) dispensed withly under his successors, usate when he began to rely more on his relatives than on the advice of the Companions and riozens of Medina. Hazrat Ali (RA) also did not summon it regularly for he relied more on his own decision than on the advice and consultation of the companions and citizens of Medina. In short, the Caliphate of Umar was the hey-day of the democratic institutions, like the Shura They gradually declined under his two successors and then vanished altogether under Umayyad Caliph Muawiya and his successors

Central Government and its Department:

Central government had a number of departments:

Department                                                     Modern Equivalent

Diwan-ul-Khiraj                                                Finance Department

Diwan-ul-Jund                                                   Military Department

Diwan-al-Khatm                                                 Secretariat

Diwan-al-Mustaghallat                                       Assets Protection Department

Diwan-al-Barid                                                     Postal and Intelligence Department

Diwan-al-Rasail                                                     Official Letters/Foreign Office

Diwan-al-Hisbah                                                   Public Morality Controller

Secretaries:

The administration was conducted under the direct personal supervision of the Caliph. But as the duties and functions of the Caliph increased, he secured the help and co- operation of a Companion or a citizen in various works of the Government. Thus Umar bin al- Khattab acted as the Chief Judge under Caliph Abu Bakr (RA) Ali was entrusted with the work of correspondence Another Companion presided over the equipment of the troops. As in the days of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), the secretaries and assistants of the Caliph worked in the courtyard of the Mosque of Medina.

Provincial Administration:

The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (the House of Islam) was lad down in the days of the Prophet. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: “If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger, then do not obey me”. This is considered to be the foundation stone of the Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: “O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong”, and at that instance a Muslim man stood up and said “O Amir al-Muminin if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!”. Hearing this Caliph Umar said “Alhamdulillah I have such followers

In the administrative field Caliph Umar was the most brilliant among the Rashidun caliphs, and it was due to his exemplary administrative qualities that most of the administrative structures of the empire were established.

Provinces/Districts

Under Caliph Abu Bakr the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.

Under Caliph Umar the Empire was divided into a number of provinces which were as follows:

• Arabia was divided into two provinces, Mecca and Medina, ❖
• Iraq was divided into two provinces, Basra and Kufa.
• The province of Jazira was created in the upper reaches of the Tigris and the Euphrates;
• Syria was a province:
• Palestine was divided in two provinces: Aylya and Ramlah;
• Egypt was divided into two provinces: Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt;
• Persia was divided into three provinces: Khorasan, Azarbaijan, and Fars.

In his testament Caliph Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. Thus for one year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, however later he made some amendments. Caliph Uthman made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising North Africa. Syria, previously divided into two provinces, also become a single division

During Caliph Uthman’s reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces.

These were:

1. Medina
2. Makkah
3. Yemen
4. Kufa
5. Basra
6. Jazira
7. Faris
8. Azerbaijan
9. Khorasan
10. Syria
11. Egypt
12. North Africa

During Caliph Ali’s reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under Muawiya’s control) and Egypt (that he had lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of Amr ibn Al-A’as), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, which kept their administrative organizations as they were under Uthman.

Provincial Officials / Functionaries

The provinces were administered by these officers at the provincial level were

Wali                                                                                       Governer

Katib                                                                                       Chief Secretar

Katib-ud-Diwan                                                                      Military Secretary

Sahib-ul-Kharaj                                                                       Revenue Collector

Sahib-ul-Ahdath                                                                      Police chief

Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal                                                                Treasury Officer

Qadi                                                                                           Chief Judge

 

. In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.

Judicial administration

As most of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Empire was set up by Caliph Umar,  the judicial administration was also established by him and the other Caliphs followed the same system without any type of basic amendment in it.

In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, an effective system of judicial administration was set up. hereunder justice was administered according to the principles of Islam.

Qadis (Judges) were appointed at all administrative levels for the administration of Justice. The Qadis were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law.  High salaries. Wealthy men  and men of high social status were appointed as Qadis so that they might not have the temptation to take babes, or be influenced by the social position of any body.

Police and Prisons Deparment

In general, the security of life and property was the responsibility of the tribal chiefs. In cities, like Medina, Caliph Umar had introduced night-watches and patrols. But in the newly tounded cities and towns, where a growing population lived amidst conditions of rapid change, the tribal authority was sometimes weak or partisan to be effective, and night- watchmen too few to restrain trouble-makers and evil-doers. Hence a police force was set up to maintain law and order in these settlements. It was called ash-Shurta It was a sort of paramilitary force. It was first instituted in Kufa by Ali and in Damascus by Muawiya In Kufa, for instance, the Shurta consisted of several thousand specially armed men, under the command of an officer, called Sahib-ash-Shurta or the commandant of Police

Caliph Umar was also the first to set up prisons, which were unknown to Arabs before. He established a prison in Medina and in each of the provincial headquarters.

Financial Administration

During the Rashidun Caliphate there was an economic boom in the lives of the ordinary people due to the revolutionary economic policies developed by Caliph Umar (634- 644) and his successor Uthman (644-656). At first it was Caliph Umar who introduced these reforms on strong bases, his successor Uthman who himself was an intelligent businessman, further reformed them. During Caliph ‘Uthman’s reign the people of the empire enjoyed a prosperous life.

Establishment of Bait al-Mal

With the extension in conquests money came in larger quantities, Caliph Umar also allowed salaries to men fighting in the army Abu Huraira who was the Governor of Bahrain sent revenue of five hundred thousand dirhams. Caliph Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money. Caliph Uthman ibn Affan advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that like the Byzantines separate departments of Treasury and accounts should be set up. After consulting the Companions Caliph Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam (597-675) was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by Abdur Rahman bin Awf (580-654) and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up and it was required to maintain record of all that was spent. Later provincial treasuries were set up in the province. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus mount to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

 

Conclusion:

We conclude our discussion on the administration under pious caliphate with the apt observation of Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928) in his book History of Saracens:

“Thus vanished the popular regime, which had for its basis a patriarchal simplicity, never again to appear among any Mussulman nation; only the jurisprudence and the rules which depended on the Koran, survived the fall of the elective Government. Some of the republican passion, however, which gave to the small States certain grandeur, and to the grand and excess of force, maintained itself in the nation in spite of the armies of the usurpers.”